Rationing in the United Kingdom refers to rationing introduced by the government of the United Kingdom several times during the 20th century, mostly during and immediately after war.[1] [2]
At the start of World War II (1939), the United Kingdom imported 20 million tons of foodstuffs per year (70%), including more than 50% of its meat, 70% of its cheese and sugar, nearly 80% of fruits and about 70% of cereals and fats. The population was between 46 million (46,038 thousand as measured in the 1931 census) and 52 million (53,225 thousand as measured in the 1951 census).[3] It was one of the principal strategies of the Axis to attack shipping bound for the United Kingdom, restricting British industry and potentially starving the nation into submission.
To deal with sometimes extreme shortages, the Ministry of Food instituted a system of rationing. To buy most rationed items, each person had to register at chosen shops, and was provided with a ration book containing coupons. The shopkeeper was provided with enough food for registered customers. Purchasers had to take ration books with them when shopping, so the relevant coupon or coupons could be cancelled.
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During World War I, the United Kingdom declared a blockade of the North Sea, to which Germany responded by using its U-boats (submarines) to sink ships carrying military equipment or food to the United Kingdom, food becoming the more important as the war continued, especially after the declaration of unlimited U-boat warfare. In about two years, the United Kingdom had just six weeks' food left and, therefore, had to ration its food supplies. Rationing started at the end of 1918 with sugar and butter remaining on ration until 1920.[4]
The goverment made preparations to ration food in 1925, in anvance of an expected general strike and appointed Food Control Offiers for each region. In the event, measures taken to break the blockade by crowds organised by the Trades Unions of the London docks, by organising convoys of lorries under military escort took the heart out of the strike, so that the measures did not have to be implemented.
After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 the first commodity to be controlled was petrol, but food rationing was also introduced quite soon. On 8 January 1940, bacon, butter and sugar were rationed. This was followed by meat, tea, jam, biscuits, breakfast cereals, cheese, eggs, lard, milk and canned fruit. Strict rationing inevitably created a black market. This was illegal, and buyers could be tricked with cheaper substitutes such as horsemeat instead of beef.
Almost all controlled items were rationed by weight, but meat, exceptionally, was rationed by price. (All prices need to be considered in the values of the time: the buying power of one shilling was much more than its equivalent (5p) in modern British currency.)
Some types of fruit which had been imported all but disappeared. Lemons and bananas became virtually unobtainable for most of the war, and although oranges continued to be sold they were customarily reserved by greengrocers for children and pregnant women, who could prove their status by producing their distinctive ration books. Other fruit such as apples still appeared from time to time, but again the sellers imposed their own restrictions so that customers were often not allowed to buy, for example, more than one apple each.
One of the few foods not rationed was fish. The price of fish increased considerably as the war progressed, but the government allowed this since it realised fishermen would need to be able to collect a premium for their catch if they were to be persuaded to put to sea in the face of enemy submarines. However, like other non-rationed items fish was rarely freely available, and long queues built up at fishmongers as well as fish and chip shops. The quality of wartime chips was often felt to be below standard, because of the low-quality fat available to fish friers.
As the war progressed most basic foods were rationed, as were other commodities such as clothing. The "civilian" petrol ration was abolished in 1942, and after that vehicle fuel was only available to "official" users, such as the emergency services, bus companies and farmers. The priority users of fuel were always, of course, the armed forces. Fuel supplied to approved users was dyed, and use of this fuel for non-essential purposes was an offence.
Clothing was rationed on a points system. When it was introduced, on 1 June 1941, no clothing coupons had been issued, and at first the unused margarine coupons in ration books were valid for clothing. Initially the allowance was for approximately one new outfit per year; as the war progressed the points were reduced to the point where the purchase of a coat constituted almost an entire year's clothing.
A further innovation was a separate points system for some kinds of food. Points were separate from coupons for such basics as meat, fat and sugar, and could be "spent" on various semi-luxury items, giving the consumer some choice once again. Tinned food, for example, was "priced" in points as well as money, and if a potential shortage developed of baked beans, consumption of them was discouraged by raising the points value. If, on the other hand, stocks of tapioca became excessive, reducing its points value triggered more sales. Points values were reviewed by the Ministry of Food once a month, and changes published in the press.
Sweets and chocolate, although sharply reduced in variety, were rationed slightly differently. Each consumer was given "personal points", which could be spent anywhere, without registration. Normal coupons were simply cancelled, usually with a rubber stamp or an indelible pencil, but points for clothes and sweets had to be cut out and handed to the shopkeeper, who had the fiddly task of threading them on strings so that they could be surrendered in bulk in return for fresh wholesale supplies. Offering already-detached coupons was not usually allowed: to make the transaction legal, the shopkeeper had to cut them from the consumer's book at the time of the sale. There was one exception: detached clothes coupons could be sent for mail order purchases.
Certain foodstuffs that the 1940s British consumer would find unusual, for example whalemeat and canned snoek fish from South Africa, were not rationed, however despite this they did not prove popular.[2][5]
Restrictions affected almost every consumer product. Cigarettes (and matches) were often hard to obtain, and bombed-out families were given priority when furniture and textiles such as sheets and blankets were available. Often they were not, and then waiting lists had to be drawn up. Many other products, ranging from cameras and china to alarm clocks and lawnmowers, mostly ceased to be available at all as the war went on. Even simple items like spoons and teacups became virtually unobtainable at times.
Books were printed to a strict "wartime economy standard", with thinner paper, narrower margins and cheaper binding, but many titles were out of print for long periods. As mentioned in more detail below, "newsprint" (the paper used for newspapers) was also restricted, and this meant there were restrictions on how many pages a newspaper could have. At times, some newspapers were reduced to just four pages – a simple folded sheet.
Long distance coach services were withdrawn, although later on some were selectively restored from time to time, mainly so that parents could visit their evacuated children in the country. Local buses and trams continued to run, but frequencies were reduced and the last services often ran earlier in the evening. The government also considered rationing rail travel, but in the event, people were urged to travel only when they had to ("Is your journey really necessary?"), and timetables were reduced, partly to save coal but also to provide more capacity for trains carrying munitions, food and fuel. The absence of any official petrol ration for civilians and the increased travel demands of war workers and the armed forces meant that those buses and trains which did run were often extremely overcrowded.
Gas and electricity remained unrationed, but households were set "fuel targets" which were, in spite of their name, no more than a recommendation about maximum use. One famous restriction concerned bathwater, which was supposed to be no more than five inches (12.7cm) deep.
Alcoholic drinks were also unrationed by the government, although a points system was considered. Instead, pubs and bars often instituted their own rationing, limiting customers to only a drink or two on each visit. Even so pubs often ran out of beer, while the price of other drinks, such as whisky, became so high that they effectively disappeared as far as most people were concerned.
Rationing continued after the end of the war in 1945, although the basic petrol ration for civilians was restored when peace returned. Indeed, some aspects of rationing actually became stricter for some years after the war. Bread, which had been reduced in quality during the war but not formally controlled, was rationed from 1946 to 1948; potato rationing began in 1947.
At the time this was presented as needed to feed people in European areas under British control, whose economies had been devastated by the fighting.[2] This was partly true, but with a large number of British men still mobilised in the armed forces, an austere economic climate, and a centrally-planned economy under the post-war Labour government, resources were not available to expand food production and imports. Frequent strikes by some workers (most critically dock workers) also made things worse.[2]
At the 1950 General Election, the Conservative Party campaigned on a manifesto of ending rationing as quickly as possible.[2] During the following Labour-controlled parliament, petrol rationing ended on 26 May 1950.[6] The Conservatives came to power in 1951. Sweet rationing ended in February 1953, and sugar rationing ended in September 1953, however the end of all food rationing did not come until 4 July 1954, with meat the last to become freely available again.[7]
Petrol rationing was briefly reintroduced in late 1956 during the Suez Crisis but ended again on 14 May 1957.[8] Advertising of petrol on the recently-introduced ITV was banned for a period.
Even though rationing formally ended in 1954, cheese production remained dramatically affected for decades afterward. During rationing, most milk in Britain was used to make just one kind of cheese, nicknamed "Government Cheddar".[9] This wiped out nearly all other cheese production in the country, and some indigenous varieties of cheese almost disappeared.[9] Later government controls on milk prices continued to discourage production of other varieties of cheese until well into the 1980s.[10]
Restaurants were initially exempt from rationing, but this was resented, as the rich could supplement their food allowance by eating out frequently and extravagantly. So new rules were introduced: no meal could cost more than five shillings; no meal could have more than three courses; meat and fish could not be served at the same sitting. Establishments known as British Restaurants supplied another almost universal experience of eating away from home. British Restaurants were run by local authorities, who set them up in various premises such as schools and church halls. They evolved from the London County Council's Londoners' Meals Service which originated in September 1940 as a temporary emergency system for feeding those who had been bombed out. By mid-1941 the London County Council was operating 200 of these restaurants; from 1942 to 1944 there were around 2000 of them.[11] Here a three-course meal cost only 9d. Standards varied, but the best were greatly appreciated and had a large regular clientele. Similar schemes were run in other towns and cities.
The average standard rations during World War II are as follows. Quantities are per week unless otherwise stated.[12]
| Item | Maximum level | Minimum level | Rations (April 1945) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bacon and Ham | 8 oz (227 g) | 4 oz (113 g) | 4 oz (113 g) |
| Sugar | 16 oz (454 g) | 8 oz (227 g) | 8 oz (227 g) |
| Loose Tea | 4 oz (113 g) | 2 oz (57 g) | 2 oz (57 g) |
| Meat | 1 s. 2d. | 1s | 1s. 2d. |
| Cheese | 8 oz (227 g) | 1 oz (28 g) | 2 oz (57 g)
Vegetarians were allowed an extra 3 oz (85 g) cheese[13] |
| Preserves | 1 lb (0.45 kg) per month 2 lb (0.91 kg) marmalade |
8 oz (227 g) per month | 2 lb (0.91 kg) marmalade or 1 lb (0.45 kg) preserve or 1 lb (0.45 kg) sugar |
| Butter | 8 oz (227 g) | 2 oz (57 g) | 2 oz (57 g) |
| Margarine | 12 oz (340 g) | 4 oz (113 g) | 4 oz (113 g) |
| Lard | 3 oz (85 g) | 2 oz (57 g) | 2 oz (57 g) |
| Sweets | 16 oz (454 g) per month | 8 oz (227 g) per month | 12 oz (340 g) per month |
Eggs were rationed and "allocated to ordinary consumers as available"; in 1944 thirty allocations of one egg each were made. Children and some invalids were allowed three a week; expectant mothers two on each allocation.
Arrangements were made for vegetarians so that their rations of meat were substituted by other goods.[13]
Milk was supplied at 3 imp pt (1.7 l) each week for priority to expectant mothers and children under 5; 3.5 imp pt (2.0 l) for those under 18; children unable to attend school 5 imp pt (2.8 l), certain invalids up to 14 imp pt (8.0 l). Each consumer got one tin of milk powder (equivalent to 8 imperial pints (4.5 l; 9.6 US pt)) every 8 weeks.[15]
No points were required for second-hand clothing or fur coats, but their prices were fixed. Before rationing lace and frills were popular on knickers but these were soon banned so that material could be saved. From March to May 1942 austerity measures were introduced which restricted the number of buttons, pockets and pleats (among other things) on clothes.[17]
All types of soap were rationed. Coupons were allotted by weight or (if liquid) by quantity. In 1945, the ration gave four coupons each month; babies and some workers and invalids were allowed more.[17] A coupon would yield:
The Fuel and Lighting (Coal) Order 1941 came into force in January 1942. Central heating was prohibited "in the summer months".[17]
Domestic coal was rationed to 15 hundredweight (cwt) — 3⁄4 long tons (0.76 t) for those in London and the south of England; 20 hundredweight — 1 long ton (1.0 t) for the rest (the southern part of England having generally a milder climate).[17] Some kinds of coal such as anthracite were not rationed, and in the coal-mining areas were eagerly gathered as they were in the Great Depression (see Road to Wigan Pier).
Newspapers were limited from September 1939, at first to 60% of their pre-war consumption of newsprint. Paper supply came under the No 48 Paper Control Order, September 4, 1942 and was controlled by the Ministry of Production. By 1945 newspapers were limited to 25% of their pre-war consumption. Wrapping paper for most goods was prohibited.[18]
The paper shortage often made it more difficult than usual for authors to get work published. In 1944, George Orwell wrote:
In Mr Stanley Unwin's recent pamphlet Publishing in Peace and War, some interesting facts are given about the quantities of paper allotted by the Government for various purposes. Here are the present figures:-
Newspapers 250,000 tons H. M. Stationery Office 200,000 " Periodicals (nearly) 50,000 " Books 22,000 " A particularly interesting detail is that out of the 100,000 tons allotted to the Stationery Office, the War Office gets no less than 25,000 tons, or more than the whole of the book trade put together. [...] At the same time paper for books is so short that even the most hackneyed "classic" is liable to be out of print, many schools are short of textbooks, new writers get no chance to start and even established writers have to expect a gap of a year or two years between finishing a book and seeing it published.